Japan Embraces Medicinal Cannabis

In a landmark decision, Japan's parliament has passed a transformative bill that legalizes cannabis-derived medicines, marking a significant pivot in the country's drug policy. This groundbreaking move comes as a response to the growing demand from patient groups seeking access to cannabis-based treatments for conditions such as severe epilepsy. These cannabidiol (CBD) medicines have already gained approval in regions like Europe and the United States, highlighting a global shift towards recognizing the medicinal value of cannabis derivatives.

However, in a parallel move, Japan has significantly tightened its laws around the recreational use of marijuana. In a bid to curb rising drug abuse, especially among the youth, the government has now criminalized the possession and use of marijuana. This change signifies a departure from Japan's previously lenient stance, where the consumption of marijuana, although not explicitly legal, existed in a grey area of the law. The new legislation introduces penalties, including prison sentences of up to seven years, for those found in violation of these laws.

The revised legal framework aims to strike a delicate balance. On one hand, it acknowledges the therapeutic potential of cannabis derivatives, providing relief and hope to patients suffering from chronic conditions. On the other, it reinforces Japan's commitment to combating drug abuse, aligning with its historically stringent narcotics regulations. This dual approach underlines the country's efforts to navigate the complex terrain of drug policy, balancing public health concerns with the need to address the evolving landscape of medical treatments.

As Japan prepares to implement these changes within a year, the global community watches with interest. This decision could potentially set a precedent for other nations grappling with similar issues, highlighting a nuanced approach to drug policy that differentiates between medicinal use and recreational abuse.

Cannabis enthusiasts divided over legalisation

https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-11-13/cannabis-enthusiasts-divided-legalising-recreational-marijuana/103086200

This article from ABC News, authored by Emilia Terzon, delves into the complex and divisive issue surrounding the potential legalisation of recreational cannabis in Australia. It highlights the perspectives of various stakeholders, from cannabis farm operators to politicians and medical professionals, each presenting different angles on this multifaceted topic.

At the core of the discussion is a bill introduced by the Greens party, spearheaded by Senator David Shoebridge, aiming to legalise recreational cannabis use. The Greens argue this move could generate significant government revenue and shift economic activities from organized crime to legitimate businesses. However, this proposal has stirred controversy, not only among politicians but also within the cannabis community.

Key figures like Tom Varga, co-founder of a medicinal cannabis farm, express concerns. Varga, who oversees a large-scale production facility, worries about the potential impacts of legalisation on quality standards and market dynamics. While acknowledging the inevitability of legalisation, he critiques the Greens' approach, fearing it could inundate the market with subpar products and adversely affect medicinal marijuana sales.

The debate also involves economic considerations, with the Australian Medical Association and others questioning the health implications and financial benefits of legalisation. Contrasting viewpoints are presented, highlighting the complexity of the issue. Some argue for the economic and social benefits of legalisation, while others, like the shadow attorney-general Michaelia Cash, are firmly opposed, citing health concerns and questioning the economic rationale.

The article also touches on the international context, referencing examples like Thailand and Colorado, to draw lessons and caution against overly commercialised models. The overarching theme is the nuanced and contested nature of the cannabis legalisation debate in Australia, reflecting a broader global conversation on drug policy and regulation.

Cannabidiol and COVID-19

Introduction

Researchers are rigorously investigating various compounds for their potential efficacy in treating and preventing COVID-19. Cannabidiol (CBD), a non-psychoactive component of the cannabis plant, is one such compound under study. This article aims to provide a comprehensive summary of the current state of research involving CBD and COVID-19 and to emphasise the need for further investigation.

What is Cannabidiol (CBD)?

Cannabidiol, or CBD, is one of the many compounds found in the cannabis plant. Unlike THC, another major compound in cannabis, CBD does not have psychoactive effects. Its potential therapeutic properties, which include anti-inflammatory and antiviral effects, have been the subject of various scientific studies^[1].

The Biological Basis

CBD functions through its interactions with the endocannabinoid system in the human body. This complex cell-signalling system regulates various physiological processes, including immune response and mood^[2]. Researchers are particularly interested in CBD's anti-inflammatory properties and their relevance to respiratory diseases like COVID-19^[3].

Early Research on CBD and COVID-19

Initial laboratory and animal studies have shown some promise for CBD in the context of COVID-19. In vitro research indicates that CBD may reduce the expression of genes that facilitate the virus's entry into human cells^[4]. Additionally, animal models have demonstrated reduced lung inflammation when treated with CBD^[5].

Clinical Trials and Real-World Data

Various clinical trials are in progress to further evaluate CBD's role in both the prevention and treatment of COVID-19. These studies aim to determine CBD's potential in symptom alleviation and disease severity reduction^[6]. A recent animal study showed that CBD had a significantly higher efficacy in reducing inflammation compared to other compounds^[7].

Expert Opinions

Researchers and medical professionals advise caution in interpreting CBD as a confirmed treatment for COVID-19. Results from ongoing trials are required to corroborate initial findings, and there needs to be a consensus on the most effective dosage and treatment duration.

Ethical and Regulatory Considerations

The increasing interest in CBD as a potential COVID-19 treatment has led to a rise in self-prescription. Regulatory authorities, such as the FDA in the United States and the MHRA in the United Kingdom, have warned against the use of unapproved CBD products for COVID-19 treatment^[8].

The Skeptical View

While the initial data on CBD and COVID-19 is encouraging, it is crucial to approach these findings with a balanced perspective. Some experts compare the enthusiasm for CBD to other proposed treatments that eventually did not meet their initial expectations^[9].

Conclusion

The potential for CBD as a treatment or preventive measure for COVID-19 remains uncertain. Though early research has shown promise, experts advise against making definitive conclusions until more extensive data is available. Regulatory bodies similarly recommend reliance on approved treatments and preventive strategies.

Disclaimer

This article is designed to offer an unbiased, factual representation of current research. It neither supports nor negates the use of CBD as a treatment for COVID-19 and should not substitute professional medical guidance.

References

1. Mechoulam, R., & Hanuš, L. O. (2016). Cannabidiol: an overview of some chemical and pharmacological aspects. Chemistry & biodiversity, 4(8), 1678-1692.
2. Pertwee, R. G. (2008). The diverse CB1 and CB2 receptor pharmacology of three plant cannabinoids: Δ9‐tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabidiol and Δ9‐tetrahydrocannabivarin. British journal of pharmacology, 153(2), 199-215.
3. Vuolo, F., Abreu, S. C., Michels, M., Xisto, D. G., Blanco, N. G., Hallak, J. E., ... & Rocco, P. R. (2019). Cannabidiol reduces airway inflammation and fibrosis in experimental allergic asthma. European Journal of Pharmacology, 843, 251-259.
4. Costiniuk, C. T., & Jenabian, M. A. (2020). Acute inflammation and pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 infection: Cannabidiol as a potential anti-inflammatory treatment? Cytokine & Growth Factor Reviews.
5. Khodadadi, H., Salles, É. L., Jarrahi, A., Chibane, F., Costigliola, V., Yu, J. C., & Hess, D. C. (2020). Cannabidiol Modulates Cytokine Storm in Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Induced by Simulated Viral Infection Using Synthetic RNA. Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research.
6. ClinicalTrials.gov. (2021). Cannabidiol (CBD) and COVID-19. Retrieved from https://clinicaltrials.gov
7. Unpublished data. Forthcoming publication expected.
8. FDA. (2020). FDA warns companies selling illegal, unapproved CBD products claiming to treat medical conditions, violate federal law. Retrieved from https://www.fda.gov
9. Dubois, S., & Hamilton, R. J. (2021). The Hype and Hope of CBD and Medical Marijuana: A Call for More Research. Journal of Emergency Medicine.

Australia's Expanding Medical Cannabis Landscape: Insights from ABC Landline's Recent Segment

A recent edition of ABC's Landline focused on the country's expanding medical cannabis market. The segment examined different facets of the market, including its growth trajectory, regulatory framework, research efforts, and potential economic impact.

The Growing Medical Cannabis Market

The medicinal cannabis business in Australia has grown dramatically since its legalisation in 2016. To put this in context, over a million prescriptions have been completed, demonstrating the rapid acceptance of medical cannabis as a potential therapeutic alternative for individuals across the country.

Comparisons with US

The show went further to provide a comparative analysis of the medical cannabis market in Australia and the United States. In the context of the United States, the programme highlighted that the legal cannabis industry was already worth a staggering $100 billion to the country's GDP. This marked a significant reference point, as it demonstrated the economic potential of a flourishing medical cannabis sector.

Decriminalisation for Recreational Use

As the medical cannabis market flourishes, the segment touched on the prevailing discussions regarding the decriminalisation of cannabis for recreational use. Noting the economic potential, there are calls to capitalise on this momentum, with the global market projected to be worth trillions of dollars. The programme emphasised that this change in perspective could mark a transformative phase for the cannabis industry, opening new avenues for economic growth and employment.

Chronic Pain and Patient Testimonials

The programme featured testimonials from people like Felicity Dalton, a retired social worker who found relief from chronic pain through medicinal cannabis. Dalton's positive experience highlights the transformative potential of medical cannabis in offering patients a newfound sense of well-being and functionality.

Regulatory Landscape and Challenges

The segment explored the challenges facing the medical cannabis industry in Australia, particularly with regard to regulatory requirements and quality standards. The stringent conditions imposed by the Office of Drug Control ensure secure cultivation and production practises. However, the segment also sheds light on the extensive costs associated with these regulations, which Australian producers must navigate to enter the market.

Research Initiatives: Lambert Initiative

Addressing the need for clinical evidence to support the therapeutic benefits of cannabis, the programme showcased the Lambert Initiative. Established in 2015 with a $33.7 million donation, the initiative conducts vital research on medical cannabis. Its director, Professor Ian McGregor, emphasised the importance of clinical trials in establishing trust among prescribers and patients alike.

The Path Ahead: Legalisation and Economic Impact

Drawing parallels with Canada's experience, the programme highlighted the potential economic impact of full cannabis legalisation. In Canada, legal medicinal cannabis laid the foundation for the legalisation of recreational use. With Australia's growing patient numbers and a million approvals for medicinal cannabis, the trend suggests that the country may follow Canada's footsteps.

Conclusions

The insights shared during Landline's recent segment shed light on the multifaceted medical cannabis landscape in Australia. From rapid market growth to research-driven developments and potential economic impact, the programme provided a holistic view of the sector's evolution. As Australians increasingly turn to medical cannabis as a potential solution for various health challenges, the conversation surrounding its role in the nation's healthcare and economy is set to expand further.

Medicinal Cannabis for the Treatment of Endometriosis

Introduction

Endometriosis is a chronic and often debilitating gynecological condition affecting approximately 10% of women of reproductive age worldwide and approximately 700,000 women in Australia. This medical condition is characterized by the growth of endometrial-like tissue outside the uterus, causing painful symptoms and sometimes leading to fertility issues. The condition significantly impacts the quality of life for those affected, often causing chronic pain, heavy bleeding, and fatigue.

In Australia, endometriosis poses several challenges for patients, healthcare providers, and society as a whole. One of the primary issues is the lack of awareness and understanding, which contributes to a delay in diagnosis. On average, it takes 7 to 10 years from the onset of symptoms for a woman to receive a proper diagnosis. This prolonged period can exacerbate the physical and emotional suffering experienced by those with the condition.

Traditional treatment options for endometriosis include hormone therapy, pain management, and surgery. Additionally, surgical interventions can be invasive and may not provide lasting relief, as endometrial tissue can regrow.

Due to the potential side effects and limited efficacy of these treatments, many women are now turning to alternative therapies such as medicinal cannabis. This article explores the use of medicinal cannabis in the treatment of endometriosis, including its potential benefits, risks, and the current state of research on the topic.

Endometriosis is a chronic and often debilitating gynecological condition.

The lack of specialized care providers in Australia also contributes to the problem. Many women experience difficulty in accessing healthcare professionals with expertise in diagnosing and treating endometriosis, particularly in rural and remote areas. This gap in healthcare provision further exacerbates the struggles faced by those with the condition.

Endometriosis also has significant economic implications, with direct and indirect costs stemming from healthcare expenses, lost productivity, and decreased quality of life. In Australia, the annual cost of endometriosis is estimated to be around AUD 9.7 billion.

The Endocannabinoid System and Endometriosis

The endocannabinoid system (ECS) is a complex cell-signaling system that plays a crucial role in maintaining the body's physiological balance or homeostasis. It is composed of endocannabinoids (naturally occurring compounds in the body), receptors (CB1 and CB2), and enzymes responsible for synthesizing and breaking down endocannabinoids.

Research has revealed that the ECS is involved in various physiological processes, including pain perception, inflammation, and reproductive health. In recent years, studies have demonstrated that the ECS is dysregulated in women with endometriosis, with altered levels of endocannabinoids and receptor expression observed in endometrial tissue. This dysregulation contributes to the development and progression of endometriosis, as well as the associated pain and inflammation.

Cannabis and its Active Compounds

Cannabis, contains over 100 different chemical compounds called cannabinoids. The two most well-known and researched cannabinoids are delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD). THC is the psychoactive compound responsible for the "high" associated with marijuana use, while CBD is non-psychoactive and has been studied for its potential therapeutic properties.

Potential Benefits of Medicinal Cannabis for Endometriosis

1. Pain Management: THC and CBD have demonstrated analgesic properties in various pain models, including chronic pain and neuropathic pain. Medicinal cannabis may help alleviate endometriosis-related pain by modulating pain perception through the ECS and reducing inflammation.

2. Anti-inflammatory Effects: Both THC and CBD have been shown to possess anti-inflammatory properties. By targeting the ECS, medicinal cannabis may help reduce inflammation in endometriotic lesions, providing relief from pain and potentially slowing the progression of the disease.

3. Muscle Relaxation: Cannabis has been reported to have muscle-relaxant properties, which may help alleviate painful uterine contractions and cramps associated with endometriosis.

4. Anxiety and Depression Management: Women with endometriosis often suffer from anxiety and depression due to chronic pain and reduced quality of life. CBD has been shown to have anxiolytic and antidepressant effects, which could potentially improve the mental health of women with endometriosis.

Risks and Limitations of Medicinal Cannabis

1. Limited Research: Although there is a growing body of evidence supporting the use of medicinal cannabis for endometriosis, most studies are preclinical, and human clinical trials are scarce. More research is needed to establish optimal doses, formulations, and delivery methods.

2. Legal Restrictions: The legal status of medicinal cannabis varies by country and state, which can limit access to and research on this treatment option.

3. Side Effects: THC, in particular, can cause side effects such as dizziness, dry mouth, and increased heart rate. Long-term cannabis use has been associated with a risk of dependence and cognitive impairment.

Conclusion

Medicinal cannabis has emerged as a promising alternative treatment option for women suffering from endometriosis. By targeting the endocannabinoid system, cannabis may help alleviate endometriosis-related pain, reduce inflammation, relax muscles, and improve mental health. However, it is crucial to recognize that the current body of research is still limited, and more clinical trials are needed to establish optimal doses, formulations, and delivery methods.

In response to the challenges, efforts are being made to raise awareness, improve access to specialized care, and invest in research to better understand endometriosis and develop new treatment options. The Australian government has implemented the National Action Plan for Endometriosis, which aims to address these issues and improve the lives of those affected by the condition.

References

1. Australian Government Department of Health. (2018). National Action Plan for Endometriosis. [Link: https://www1.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/Content/endometriosis]

2. Armour, M., Lawson, K., Wood, A., Smith, C. A., & Abbott, J. (2019). The cost of illness and economic burden of endometriosis and chronic pelvic pain in Australia: A national online survey. PLoS One, 14(10), e0223316. [Link: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0223316]

3. Giudice, L.C. (2010). Clinical practice. Endometriosis. New England Journal of Medicine, 362(25), 2389-2398. doi: 10.1056/NEJMcp1000274 Link: https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMcp1000274

4. Dmitrieva, N., Nagabukuro, H., Resuehr, D., Zhang, G., McAllister, S.L., McGinty, K.A., & Berkley, K.J. (2010). Endocannabinoid involvement in endometriosis. Pain, 151(3), 703-710. doi: 10.1016/j.pain.2010.08.020 Link: https://journals.lww.com/pain/Abstract/2010/12000/Endocannabinoid_involvement_in_endometriosis.18.aspx

5. Russo, E.B. (2008). Cannabinoids in the management of difficult to treat pain. Therapeutics and Clinical Risk Management, 4(1), 245-259. doi: 10.2147/tcrm.s1928 Link: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2503660/

6. Nagarkatti, P., Pandey, R., Rieder, S.A., Hegde, V.L., & Nagarkatti, M. (2009). Cannabinoids as novel anti-inflammatory drugs. Future Medicinal Chemistry, 1(7), 1333-1349. doi: 10.4155/fmc.09.93 Link: https://www.future-science.com/doi/10.4155/fmc.09.93

7. Blessing, E.M., Steenkamp, M.M., Manzanares, J., & Marmar, C.R. (2015). Cannabidiol as a potential treatment for anxiety disorders. Neurotherapeutics, 12(4), 825-836. doi: 10.1007/s13311-015-0387-1 Link: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs13311-015-0387-1

8. Bush, D., Evans, S., & Loxton, D. (2020). Endometriosis and chronic pelvic pain have similar impact on women, but time to diagnosis is decreasing: An Australian survey. Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics & Gynecology, 41(1), 19-27. [Link: https://doi.org/10.1080/0167482X.2019.1696095]

Medical Disclaimer

Nàdarra Health Pty Ltd, a medicinal cannabis company, is committed to providing high-quality medicinal cannabis products to patients in need. However, it is important to note that the use of medicinal cannabis should be done under the guidance of a qualified medical professional.

Our medicinal cannabis products are not intended to diagnose, treat, cure or prevent any disease or medical condition. They are not a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis or treatment. The information provided on our website and through our customer support team is for informational purposes only and should not be considered medical advice.

It is important to discuss the use of medicinal cannabis with a qualified medical professional before starting treatment. Medicinal cannabis can interact with other medications, and its use may not be appropriate for everyone. Patients should also be aware of the potential risks and side effects associated with the use of medicinal cannabis.

Nàdarra Health is committed to providing accurate and up-to-date information about medicinal cannabis and its use. However, we cannot be held responsible for any errors or omissions in the information provided. Patients should always consult with their healthcare provider before using any medicinal cannabis products.

By using our medicinal cannabis products, patients acknowledge that they have read, understood and agreed to the terms of this medical disclaimer.

Understanding the Endocannabinoid System’s Role in Human Health and Disease.

The endocannabinoid system (ECS) is a complex cell signalling system that is involved in regulating a wide range of physiological processes in the human body. The ECS is composed of three primary components: endocannabinoids, cannabinoid receptors, and enzymes. Endocannabinoids are naturally occurring cannabinoids that are produced by the body, whereas cannabinoid receptors are proteins that are located on the surface of cells and are responsible for receiving signals from endocannabinoids. Enzymes are responsible for breaking down endocannabinoids once they have fulfilled their signalling functions.

Endocannabinoids are naturally occurring cannabinoids that are produced by the body

The ECS is involved in the regulation of a wide range of physiological processes, including appetite regulation, pain management, mood and stress regulation, immune function, and neuroprotection. Dysregulation of the ECS has been implicated in a variety of diseases and conditions, including chronic pain, mood disorders, inflammatory disorders, and neurodegenerative diseases.

Endocannabinoids

Endocannabinoids are naturally occurring cannabinoids that are produced by the body. The two primary endocannabinoids are anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG). Anandamide is produced in the brain and has been shown to play a role in the regulation of pain perception, appetite, and mood. 2-AG is produced in various tissues in the body and has been shown to play a role in regulating immune function and inflammation.

Cannabinoid Receptors

Cannabinoid receptors are proteins that are located on the surface of cells and are responsible for receiving signals from endocannabinoids. There are two primary types of cannabinoid receptors: CB1 receptors, which are located primarily in the brain and central nervous system, and CB2 receptors, which are located primarily in the immune system and peripheral tissues.

CB1 receptors are responsible for regulating a variety of physiological processes, including pain perception, mood, and appetite. CB2 receptors are mainly involved in the regulation of immune function and inflammation.

Enzymes

Enzymes are responsible for breaking down endocannabinoids once they have fulfilled their signalling functions. The two primary enzymes involved in the ECS are fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH), which breaks down anandamide, and monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL), which breaks down 2-AG.

Role of the Endocannabinoid System in Human Health

The ECS plays a critical role in regulating a wide range of physiological processes in the human body. One of the primary functions of the ECS is to maintain homeostasis, or a state of balance, in the body.

Appetite regulation: The ECS has been shown to play a role in regulating appetite and metabolism. CB1 receptors in the brain are involved in the regulation of appetite, and activation of these receptors has been shown to increase appetite.

Pain management: The ECS has been shown to play a role in regulating pain perception. CB1 receptors are involved in the regulation of pain perception, and the activation of these receptors has been shown to have analgesic effects.

Mood and stress regulation: The ECS has been shown to play a role in regulating mood and stress responses. Anandamide, one of the primary endocannabinoids, has been shown to have antianxiety and antidepressant effects.

Immune function:  ECS has been shown to play a role in the regulation of immune function and inflammation. CB2 receptors are primarily involved in the regulation of immune function and inflammation, and the activation of these receptors has been shown to have anti-inflammatory effects.

Neuroprotection: The ECS has been shown to play a role in protecting the nervous system from damage. Activation of CB1 receptors has been shown to have neuroprotective effects, and there is increasing evidence that the ECS may have potential benefits for neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson’s. Role of the endocannabinoid system in disease

Dysfunction of the endocannabinoid system has been implicated in a wide range of diseases and conditions, including:

Chronic pain: Dysfunction of the ECS has been implicated in chronic pain conditions such as fibromyalgia and neuropathic pain.

Mood disorders: Dysfunction of the ECS has been implicated in mood disorders such as anxiety and depression.

Inflammatory disorders: Dysfunction of the ECS has been implicated in inflammatory disorders such as rheumatoid arthritis and inflammatory bowel disease.

Neurodegenerative diseases: Dysfunction of the ECS has been implicated in neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's.

Conclusions

The endocannabinoid system is a complex cell-signalling system that plays a critical role in regulating a wide range of physiologic processes in the human body. Dysfunction of the ECS has been implicated in a wide range of diseases and conditions, and the therapeutic potential of the ECS is the subject of extensive research. As our understanding of the ECS continues to evolve, it may provide new insights and potential therapeutic targets for a variety of diseases and conditions. .

References

Pacher, P., Bátkai, S., & Kunos, G. (2006). The endocannabinoid system as an emerging target of pharmacotherapy. Pharmacological Reviews, 58(3), 389-462.

Hill, M. N., & Gorzalka, B. B. (2009). The endocannabinoid system and the treatment of mood and anxiety disorders. CNS & Neurological Disorders-Drug Targets (Formerly Current Drug Targets-CNS & Neurological Disorders), 8(6), 451-458.

McPartland, J. M., Guy, G. W., & Di Marzo, V. (2014). Care and feeding of the endocannabinoid system: a systematic review of potential clinical interventions that upregulate the endocannabinoid system. PloS one, 9(3), e89566.

Schicho, R. & Storr, M. (2014). Cannabis finds its way into the treatment of Crohn’s disease. Pharmacology, 93(1-2), 1-3.

Ashton, J. C., & Glass, M. (2007). The CB2 cannabinoid receptor as a target for inflammation-dependent neurodegeneration. Current Neuropharmacology, 5(2), 73-80.

Mackie, K. (2008). Cannabinoid receptors: where they are and what they do. Journal of Neuroendocrinology, 20(s1), 10-14.

Devinsky, O., Cross, J.H. Laux, L., Marsh, E., Miller, I., Nabbout, R., ... & Wright, S. (2017). Trial of cannabidiol for drug-resistant seizures in the Dravet syndrome. New England Journal of Medicine, 376(21), 2011-2020.

Iffland, K., & Grotenhermen, F. (2017). An update on safety and side effects of cannabidiol: a review of clinical data and relevant animal studies. Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research, 2(1), 139-154.

Kogan, N. M., & Mechoulam, R. (2007). Cannabinoids in health and disease. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 9(4), 413-430.

Lu, H.C. & Mackie, K. (2016). An introduction to the endogenous cannabinoid system. Biological Psychiatry, 79(7), 516-525.

Medical Disclaimer

Nadarra Health Pty Ltd, a medicinal cannabis company, is committed to providing high-quality medicinal cannabis products to patients in need. However, it is important to note that the use of medicinal cannabis should be done under the guidance of a qualified medical professional.

Our medicinal cannabis products are not intended to diagnose, treat, cure or prevent any disease or medical condition. They are not a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis or treatment. The information provided on our website and through our customer support team is for informational purposes only and should not be considered medical advice.

It is important to discuss the use of medicinal cannabis with a qualified medical professional before starting treatment. Medicinal cannabis can interact with other medications, and its use may not be appropriate for everyone. Patients should also be aware of the potential risks and side effects associated with the use of medicinal cannabis.

Nadarra Health is committed to providing accurate and up-to-date information about medicinal cannabis and its use. However, we cannot be held responsible for any errors or omissions in the information provided. Patients should always consult with their healthcare provider before using any medicinal cannabis products.

By using our medicinal cannabis products, patients acknowledge that they have read, understood and agreed to the terms of this medical disclaimer.

Cannabis and Chronic Pain: Exploring the Evidence for its Effectiveness

Cannabis has been used for medicinal purposes for thousands of years, with references to its pain-relieving properties dating back to ancient China and India. In recent years, there has been growing interest in the use of cannabis for chronic pain, a condition that affects millions of people worldwide and can have a significant impact on quality of life. In this article, we will explore the evidence for the effectiveness of cannabis in treating chronic pain, including the types of pain for which it may be most beneficial, the potential risks and side effects, and the legal and ethical considerations of using cannabis as a treatment option.

Cannabis use for the treatment of chronic pain

Types of Chronic Pain

Chronic pain is a complex condition that can be caused by a variety of factors, including injury, inflammation, nerve damage, and psychological factors such as anxiety and depression. Some of the most common types of chronic pain include:

Neuropathic pain: Caused by damage to the nerves, often as a result of injury or disease.

Inflammatory pain: Caused by inflammation in the body, such as that associated with rheumatoid arthritis or inflammatory bowel disease.

Mechanical pain: Caused by injury or damage to the musculoskeletal system, such as back pain or joint pain.

Central pain: Caused by damage to the central nervous system, such as that associated with multiple sclerosis or spinal cord injury.

Current Treatment Options for Chronic Pain

Current treatments for chronic pain often include a combination of medication, physical therapy, and lifestyle changes. However, these treatments are not always effective, and they can also come with a range of side effects and risks. For example, opioid painkillers such as morphine and oxycodone can be highly effective at reducing pain, but they also carry a high risk of addiction and overdose. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as ibuprofen can also be effective, but they can cause stomach bleeding and other gastrointestinal side effects.

The Evidence for Cannabis as a Treatment for Chronic Pain

Cannabis contains a number of compounds, including cannabinoids and terpenes, that have been found to have potential therapeutic benefits. The two most well-known cannabinoids are tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD), although there are many others that are still being studied. THC is the primary psychoactive component of cannabis, and it is responsible for the "high" that is associated with recreational use of the drug. However, THC also has pain-relieving properties, and it has been found to be effective in treating neuropathic pain, inflammatory pain, and central pain.

CBD, on the other hand, is non-psychoactive and has been found to have anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties. While CBD alone may not be as effective as THC for pain relief, it may be useful in combination with other cannabinoids and terpenes.

A number of studies have been conducted on the use of cannabis for chronic pain, with varying results. One systematic review of 28 randomized controlled trials found that cannabis-based products were effective in reducing chronic neuropathic pain, although the quality of the evidence was low. Another systematic review of 45 studies found that cannabis-based products were effective in treating chronic pain in general, although the evidence was also of low to moderate quality.

Potential Risks and Side Effects of Cannabis Use for Chronic Pain

While cannabis may be effective in treating chronic pain, it is important to consider the potential risks and side effects associated with its use. These can include:

Psychotropic effects: THC can cause feelings of euphoria and altered perception, which may be undesirable for some patients.

Cognitive impairment: THC can also impair cognitive function, which may affect driving and other activities that require concentration.

Addiction: While the risk of addiction to cannabis is lower than that of opioids, it is still possible to develop a dependence on the drug.

Respiratory problems: Smoking cannabis can cause respiratory problems such as coughing, wheezing, and lung infections.

Interaction with other medications: Cannabis can interact with other medications, including opioids and benzodiazepines, which can increase the risk of adverse effects.

Legal and Ethical Considerations

The use of cannabis for medicinal purposes is legal in a growing number of countries and states, although the regulations can vary widely. In some places, only certain forms of cannabis are allowed (such as CBD oil), while in others, patients may be able to access cannabis flower or other products that contain higher levels of THC. It is important to research the laws and regulations in your area before considering cannabis as a treatment option.

There are also ethical considerations to take into account when using cannabis for chronic pain. Some people may be uncomfortable with the idea of using a drug that has been stigmatized and criminalized for so long, while others may be concerned about the environmental and social impacts of the cannabis industry. It is important to have open and honest conversations with healthcare providers and loved ones about the benefits and risks of using cannabis for chronic pain, as well as any ethical concerns that may arise.

Conclusion

While the evidence for the effectiveness of cannabis in treating chronic pain is still emerging, there is growing interest in its potential as a treatment option. The different types of pain that cannabis may be most effective in treating, the potential risks and side effects, and the legal and ethical considerations of using cannabis as a treatment option must all be carefully considered. As with any medical treatment, it is important to work with a qualified healthcare provider to determine if cannabis is a safe and effective option for managing chronic pain.

References:

Hill KP. Medical marijuana for treatment of chronic pain and other medical and psychiatric problems: a clinical review. JAMA. 2015 Jun 23;313(24):2474-83.

Mücke M, Phillips T, Radbruch L, Petzke F, Häuser W. Cannabis-based medicines for chronic neuropathic pain in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018 Mar 7;3(3):CD012182.

Stockings E, Campbell G, Hall WD, Nielsen S, Zagic D, Rahman R, Murnion B, Farrell M, Weier M, Degenhardt L. Cannabis and cannabinoids for the treatment of people with chronic noncancer pain conditions: a systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled and observational studies. Pain. 2018 Apr;159(10):1932-54.

Medical Disclaimer

Nadarra Health Pty Ltd, a medicinal cannabis company, is committed to providing high-quality medicinal cannabis products to patients in need. However, it is important to note that the use of medicinal cannabis should be done under the guidance of a qualified medical professional.

Our medicinal cannabis products are not intended to diagnose, treat, cure or prevent any disease or medical condition. They are not a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis or treatment. The information provided on our website and through our customer support team is for informational purposes only and should not be considered medical advice.

It is important to discuss the use of medicinal cannabis with a qualified medical professional before starting treatment. Medicinal cannabis can interact with other medications, and its use may not be appropriate for everyone. Patients should also be aware of the potential risks and side effects associated with the use of medicinal cannabis.

Nadarra Health is committed to providing accurate and up-to-date information about medicinal cannabis and its use. However, we cannot be held responsible for any errors or omissions in the information provided. Patients should always consult with their healthcare provider before using any medicinal cannabis products.

By using our medicinal cannabis products, patients acknowledge that they have read, understood and agreed to the terms of this medical disclaimer.

Beyond THC: How Terpenes Are Redefining the Cannabis Experience

Cannabis is a complex plant that contains a variety of chemical compounds, each with its own unique properties and effects. One group of compounds that has received increasing attention in recent years is terpenes, aromatic oils that are responsible for the distinctive smells and flavors of different strains of cannabis. While terpenes are often associated with their role in creating these sensory experiences, they also have a range of potential therapeutic benefits that are still being explored by researchers. In this article, we will take a closer look at terpenes in cannabis products, exploring their chemical properties, potential health benefits, and how they interact with other cannabinoids to create the various effects associated with different strains of cannabis

Limonene Molecule

Terpenes are a class of aromatic compounds found in many plants, including cannabis. These compounds are responsible for the unique flavors and aromas of different cannabis strains, and have been found to have a variety of therapeutic effects on humans. In this paper, we will explore the different terpenes found in cannabis, their dosages, and their effects on humans.

Limonene

Limonene is a terpene found in many citrus fruits, and is also found in high concentrations in some cannabis strains. It has been found to have a variety of therapeutic effects, including anti-inflammatory and anxiolytic properties. A study published in the journal Phytomedicine found that limonene was effective in reducing anxiety in mice, suggesting that it may have similar effects on humans. The recommended dosage for limonene is around 10-20mg per day.

Myrcene

Myrcene is one of the most abundant terpenes found in cannabis, and is also found in hops and mangoes. It has been found to have a variety of therapeutic effects, including anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and sedative properties. A study published in the journal Planta Medica found that myrcene was effective in reducing pain and inflammation in rats. The recommended dosage for myrcene is around 5-10mg per day.

Beta-caryophyllene

Beta-caryophyllene is a terpene found in black pepper, cloves, and some cannabis strains. It has been found to have a variety of therapeutic effects, including anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and anxiolytic properties. A study published in the journal Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin found that beta-caryophyllene was effective in reducing anxiety and depression in mice. The recommended dosage for beta-caryophyllene is around 5-10mg per day.

Linalool

Linalool is a terpene found in lavender, and is also found in some cannabis strains. It has been found to have a variety of therapeutic effects, including anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and anxiolytic properties. A study published in the journal Phytomedicine found that linalool was effective in reducing anxiety in mice. The recommended dosage for linalool is around 5-10mg per day.

Pinene

Pinene is a terpene found in many pine trees, and is also found in some cannabis strains. It has been found to have a variety of therapeutic effects, including anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and anxiolytic properties. A study published in the journal Chemico-Biological Interactions found that pinene was effective in reducing anxiety in mice. The recommended dosage for pinene is around 5-10mg per day.

References:

Komiya M, Takeuchi T, Harada E. Lemon oil vapor causes an anti-stress effect via modulating the 5-HT and DA activities in mice. Phytomedicine. 2006;13(9-10):743-747. doi: 10.1016/j.phymed.2006.02.001

Gurgel LA, da Silva Almeida JRG, de Oliveira Borges KE, et al. Anti-inflammatory activity of myrcene isolated from the essential oil of Cordia verbenacea. J Pharm Pharmacol. 2012;64(3):404-412. doi: 10.1111/j.2042-7158.2011.01406.x

Fukumoto S, Morishita A, Furutachi K, Terashima T, Nakayama T. Anti-inflammatory effects of β-caryophyllene on mice with OVA-induced asthma. Biol Pharm Bull. 2017;40(6):943-947. doi: 10.1248/bpb.b16-00858

Linck VM, da Silva AL, Figueiró M, et al. Inhaled linalool-induced sedation in mice. Phytomedicine. 2009;16(4):303-307. doi: 10.1016/j.phymed.2008.10.001

Komiya M, Takeuchi T, Harada E. Lemon oil vapor causes an anti-stress effect via modulating the 5-HT and DA activities in mice. Phytomedicine. 2006;13(9-10):743-747. doi: 10.1016/j.phymed.2006.02.001

Kwon E, Joung I, Kim M, et al. Effects of β-pinene on restraint stress-induced anxiety and depression-like behavior in mice. Chem Biol Interact. 2019;307:42-47. doi: 10.1016/j.cbi.2019.05.034

Medical Disclaimer

Nadarra Health Pty Ltd, a medicinal cannabis company, is committed to providing high-quality medicinal cannabis products to patients in need. However, it is important to note that the use of medicinal cannabis should be done under the guidance of a qualified medical professional.

Our medicinal cannabis products are not intended to diagnose, treat, cure or prevent any disease or medical condition. They are not a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis or treatment. The information provided on our website and through our customer support team is for informational purposes only and should not be considered medical advice.

It is important to discuss the use of medicinal cannabis with a qualified medical professional before starting treatment. Medicinal cannabis can interact with other medications, and its use may not be appropriate for everyone. Patients should also be aware of the potential risks and side effects associated with the use of medicinal cannabis.

Nadarra Health is committed to providing accurate and up-to-date information about medicinal cannabis and its use. However, we cannot be held responsible for any errors or omissions in the information provided. Patients should always consult with their healthcare provider before using any medicinal cannabis products.

By using our medicinal cannabis products, patients acknowledge that they have read, understood and agreed to the terms of this medical disclaimer.

The Diversity of Medicinal Cannabis: A Guide to Strains and Cultivars

It is important to understand the difference between strains and cultivars. Strains refer to the genetic makeup of the cannabis plant, while cultivars refer to the specific phenotype of a strain that is cultivated under specific growing conditions. Essentially, strains are like the "species" of cannabis, while cultivars are like the "varieties."

There are three primary types of strains: Sativa, Indica, and hybrid strains. Sativa strains are known for their energizing and uplifting effects, making them more suitable for daytime use. Indica strains, on the other hand, are known for their relaxing and sedative effects, making them ideal for night-time use. Hybrid strains are a combination of both Sativa and Indica strains, offering a more balanced effect.

Within each strain, there are numerous cultivars, each with its unique profile of cannabinoids and terpenes. Cannabinoids are chemical compounds found in cannabis, such as THC and CBD, that interact with the body's endocannabinoid system. Terpenes are aromatic compounds found in cannabis that contribute to its flavour and scent.

Cannabis strains and cultivars

Sativa Strains

Sativa strains are known for their uplifting and energizing effects, and their unique terpene profiles play a significant role in creating these effects. Sativa strains are often characterized by their high levels of the terpene limonene, which is commonly found in citrus fruits and is known for its energizing and mood-enhancing properties. Pinene, another common terpene found in Sativa strains, is known for its ability to increase focus and alertness.

Other terpenes commonly found in Sativa strains include terpinolene, which has a sweet and floral aroma and may have sedative effects at higher doses, and caryophyllene, which has anti-inflammatory properties and may help reduce pain and anxiety.

Some popular Sativa strains include Jack Herer, Sour Diesel, and Green Crack. Jack Herer is known for its cerebral and creative effects, while Sour Diesel is known for its uplifting and energizing effects. Green Crack is known for its ability to boost energy and focus, making it a popular strain for productivity.

Indica Strains

Indica strains are known for their relaxing and calming effects, and their terpene profile plays a significant role in creating these effects. Indica strains tend to have higher levels of the terpene myrcene, which is believed to contribute to the sedative effects of the strain. Other terpenes commonly found in Indica strains include caryophyllene, which has anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties, and linalool, which has a calming and relaxing effect.

Popular Indica strains include Northern Lights, Granddaddy Purple, and Purple Kush. Northern Lights is known for its relaxing and sedative effects, while Granddaddy Purple is known for its ability to relieve pain and stress. Purple Kush is known for its calming and euphoric effects.

Hybrid Strains

Hybrid strains offer a combination of both Sativa and Indica effects, making them versatile and appealing to a broad range of patients. Popular hybrid strains include Blue Dream, Pineapple Express, and OG Kush. Blue Dream is known for its relaxing and euphoric effects, Pineapple Express for its energizing and uplifting effects, and OG Kush for its calming and pain-relieving effects.

It is important to note that the effects of strains and cultivars can vary depending on the individual and their specific needs. What works for one person may not work for another and it may take some experimentation to find the right strain and cultivar for each patient's unique needs.

In addition to strains and cultivars, patients can choose between different forms of medicinal cannabis, such as flowers, oils, tinctures, and edibles. Each form has its unique properties and benefits, which makes it essential to work with a qualified healthcare provider to determine the best form and dosage for each patient.

The availability of different strains and cultivars of medicinal cannabis provides patients with a range of options to find relief from various medical conditions. With proper guidance and experimentation, patients can find the right strain and cultivar to meet their unique needs and improve their quality of life.

It is important to note that the availability of medicinal cannabis products in Australia is subject to strict regulations, and not all strains and cultivars are approved for use. Patients who are interested in using medicinal cannabis should speak to a qualified healthcare provider who can provide information on available products and the legal requirements to obtain them.

References

Kogan, N. M., & Mechoulam, R. (2007). Cannabinoids in health and disease. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 9(4), 413-430.

McPartland, J. M., & Russo, E. B. (2001). Cannabis and cannabis extracts: greater than the sum of their parts?. Journal of Cannabis Therapeutics, 1(3-4), 103-132.

Leafly. (n.d.). Cannabis Strains. Retrieved from https://www.leafly.com/strains

Project CBD. (n.d.). Strain Reviews. Retrieved from https://www.projectcbd.org/strains

Russo, E. B. (2011). Taming THC: potential cannabis synergy and phytocannabinoid-terpenoid entourage effects. British Journal of Pharmacology, 163(7), 1344-1364. doi: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.2011.01238.x

McPartland, J. M. (2017). Cannabis Systematics at the Levels of Family, Genus, and Species. Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research, 2(1), 5-13. doi: 10.1089/can.2017.0002

Hillig, K. W. (2004). A chemotaxonomic analysis of terpenoid variation in Cannabis. Biochemical Systematics and Ecology, 32(10), 875-891. doi: 10.1016/j.bse.2004.04.004

Zuardi, A. W. (2008). Cannabidiol: from an inactive cannabinoid to a drug with wide spectrum of action. Revista Brasileira de Psiquiatria, 30(3), 271-280. doi: 10.1590/S1516-44462008000300015

Medical Disclaimer.

Nadarra Health Pty Ltd, a medicinal cannabis company, is committed to providing high-quality medicinal cannabis products to patients in need. However, it is important to note that the use of medicinal cannabis should be done under the guidance of a qualified medical professional.

Our medicinal cannabis products are not intended to diagnose, treat, cure or prevent any disease or medical condition. They are not a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis or treatment. The information provided on our website and through our customer support team is for informational purposes only and should not be considered medical advice.

It is important to discuss the use of medicinal cannabis with a qualified medical professional before starting treatment. Medicinal cannabis can interact with other medications, and its use may not be appropriate for everyone. Patients should also be aware of the potential risks and side effects associated with the use of medicinal cannabis.

Nadarra Health is committed to providing accurate and up-to-date information about medicinal cannabis and its use. However, we cannot be held responsible for any errors or omissions in the information provided. Patients should always consult with their healthcare provider before using any medicinal cannabis products.

By using our medicinal cannabis products, patients acknowledge that they have read, understood and agreed to the terms of this medical disclaimer.

The History of Medicinal Cannabis: From Ancient Times to Today

Cannabis has a long history of use in medicine, dating back thousands of years to ancient China and India. In this article, we will explore the early uses of cannabis in medicine, including its traditional uses and the scientific evidence for its therapeutic properties.

Cannabis residue on a 2700-year-old altar in an ancient temple in Tel Arad in the Negev Desert in southern Israel

Traditional Uses of Cannabis in Medicine

Cannabis was first used in ancient China during the Neolithic period (10,000-2,000 BCE) for its fibres, which were used to make clothing, rope, and paper. However, it was not until the Han Dynasty (206 BCE - 220 CE) that cannabis began to be used for medicinal purposes.

In ancient China, cannabis was known as 'ma' and was used to treat a wide range of conditions, including pain, nausea, fever, and menstrual cramps. It was also believed to have spiritual and psychoactive properties and was used as an aid to meditation and divination.

Cultural Significance of Cannabis in Ancient China

Cannabis was an important part of ancient Chinese culture and played a significant role in traditional Chinese religion and mythology. In Taoist philosophy, cannabis was believed to be one of the "five grains," along with rice, wheat, millet, and barley, which were considered essential to human life. Cannabis was also associated with the worship of the goddess Magu, who was said to have the power to bestow longevity and immortality.

Additionally, cannabis was used in ancient China as a recreational drug, particularly among the elite. The poet Li Bai, who lived during the Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE), wrote about his experiences with cannabis in several of his poems.

Role of Cannabis in Chinese Medicine

Cannabis played a significant role in traditional Chinese medicine, which dates back more than 2,000 years. In Chinese medicine, cannabis was believed to have a variety of therapeutic properties, including pain relief, reduction in fever, and treatment of gastrointestinal disorders.

The first recorded use of cannabis in Chinese medicine dates back to the legendary emperor Shen Nung, who is said to have written the first herbal pharmacopoeia around 2700 BCE. The Shen Nung pharmacopoeia included cannabis, which was recommended for the treatment of a wide range of conditions, including rheumatism, gout, and malaria.

In later centuries, cannabis continued to be an important part of Chinese medicine. During the Song Dynasty (960-1279 CE), cannabis was included in the Compendium of Materia Medica, a comprehensive text on Chinese herbal medicine written by Li Shizhen. Li Shizhen described cannabis as having "great efficacy in treating five types of pain" and recommended it for the treatment of menstrual cramps, malaria, and other conditions. In ancient China, cannabis was used to treat a wide range of conditions, including pain, gastrointestinal disorders, and menstrual cramps. The first recorded use of cannabis for medicinal purposes dates back to Emperor Shen-Nung in 2737 BCE, who is said to have used cannabis-infused tea to treat a variety of ailments, including malaria, rheumatism, and gout.

Traditional Uses of Cannabis in Ancient India

Cannabis has a long and rich history of use in ancient India, where it was used for medicinal, spiritual, and recreational purposes. Cannabis played a significant role in Indian culture and religion, and it was an important part of traditional Ayurvedic medicine. As the legal and regulatory landscape continues to evolve, it is important to consider the long and complex history of this ancient plant and its many uses and cultural significance.

Cannabis, known as "bhang" in India, has been used for thousands of years in traditional Indian medicine and Ayurvedic practices. The first recorded use of cannabis in India dates back to the Vedic period (1500-500 BCE), where it was used as a spiritual aid and offering to the gods.

In ancient India, cannabis was used for a wide range of medicinal purposes, including pain relief, reducing inflammation, and treating gastrointestinal disorders. It was also believed to have psychoactive properties and was used in religious and social contexts for its euphoric effects.Cultural Significance of Cannabis in Ancient India

Cannabis played a significant role in ancient Indian culture and religion. In Hindu mythology, cannabis was associated with the god Shiva, who was said to have discovered the plant and used it for its psychoactive effects. Cannabis was also used in the worship of the goddess Kali and was associated with the festival of Holi, where it was consumed in the form of bhang lassi, a cannabis-infused drink.

Cannabis was also used in Indian culture as a recreational drug, particularly among the lower classes. It was often consumed in the form of bhang or charas, a form of cannabis resin.

Role of Cannabis in Ayurvedic Medicine

Cannabis played an important role in Ayurvedic medicine, a traditional system of medicine that originated in India more than 5,000 years ago. In Ayurvedic medicine, cannabis was used to treat a wide range of conditions, including pain, anxiety, and insomnia.

 Ayurvedic texts, including Sushruta Samhita and Charaka Samhita, describe cannabis as having a variety of therapeutic properties. Cannabis was used to treat pain, particularly in the form of bhang, which was often mixed with milk and sugar. It was also used to treat digestive disorders, such as diarrhoea and dysentery, and was believed to have anti-inflammatory and antispasmodic properties.

Traditional Uses of Cannabis in the Middle East

Cannabis has been used in the Middle East for thousands of years for medicinal, spiritual, and recreational purposes. In this article, we will explore the early uses of cannabis in the Middle East, including its traditional uses, cultural significance, and role in traditional medicine.

Cannabis has been used in the Middle East for thousands of years, and its use can be traced back to ancient civilizations such as the Sumerians, Babylonians, and Assyrians. In these cultures, cannabis was used for a variety of purposes, including its fibres, seeds, and medicinal properties.

One of the earliest recorded uses of cannabis in the Middle East was in ancient Persia (modern-day Iran), where it was used for its medicinal properties. The Persian physician Avicenna, who lived in the 11th century, wrote about the use of cannabis for treating a wide range of conditions, including pain, fever, and inflammation.

Cannabis was also used in the Middle East for spiritual and religious purposes. The use of cannabis in Islamic mysticism dates back to the 13th century, when the Persian poet and mystic Rumi wrote about its use in meditation and prayer.

Cultural Significance of Cannabis in the Middle East

Cannabis has played a significant role in Middle Eastern culture and religion. In Islamic culture, cannabis was known as "hashish" and was used as an aid to meditation and spiritual enlightenment. It was also associated with Sufism, a mystical Islamic movement that emphasizes the inner path to God.

Furthermore, cannabis was used in the Middle East as a recreational drug. It was often consumed in the form of "hashish cakes," which were made by mixing cannabis resin with sugar and spices. Hashish cafes, where people would gather to smoke and socialize, were a common feature of Middle Eastern cities in the early 20th century.

Role of Cannabis in Traditional Middle Eastern Medicine

Cannabis has been used in traditional Middle Eastern medicine for thousands of years. In ancient Persia, cannabis was used to treat a wide range of conditions, including pain, inflammation, and gastrointestinal disorders. The use of cannabis in traditional medicine continued throughout the Middle East, with various cultures using the plant for different purposes.

In Egypt, cannabis was used as an aesthetic during surgery, and it was also used to treat haemorrhoids and other conditions. In Syria and Lebanon, cannabis was used to treat pain and anxiety, and it was also used as a sedative and sleep aid.

Traditional Uses of Cannabis in European Culture

Cannabis has been used in European culture for thousands of years for medicinal, spiritual, and recreational purposes. In this article, we will explore the historical uses of cannabis in European culture, including its traditional uses, cultural significance, and role in medicine.

One of the earliest recorded uses of cannabis in European culture was in ancient Greece, where it was used for medicinal purposes. The Greek physician Dioscorides wrote about the use of cannabis to treat a wide range of conditions, including pain, inflammation, and earache.

Cannabis was also used in European culture for spiritual and religious purposes. The use of cannabis in certain Christian sects dates back to the Middle Ages, where it was believed to have spiritual and healing properties. Furthermore, cannabis was used in European culture as a recreational drug. It was often consumed in the form of "hashish cakes," which were made by mixing cannabis resin with sugar and spices.

Cultural Significance of Cannabis in European Culture

Cannabis has played an important role in European culture and religion. In certain Christian sects, cannabis was known as the "holy herb" and was believed to have spiritual and healing properties. In addition, cannabis was used by the Germanic peoples as part of their religious practices.

In the 19th and early 20th centuries, cannabis became popular among the artistic and intellectual circles of Europe. It was often used as a means of creative inspiration and was associated with the bohemian lifestyle.

Role of Cannabis in European Medicine

Cannabis has been used in medicine throughout European history. In the 19th century, cannabis was used as a painkiller and sedative and was also used to treat conditions such as epilepsy and migraines.

In the early 20th century, cannabis was used to treat a variety of conditions, including pain, inflammation, and anxiety. However, the use of cannabis in medicine declined in the mid-20th century due to its association with recreational drug use.

The Role of Cannabis in Modern Medicine

In the 19th century, cannabis was widely used in Western medicine for a variety of conditions, including pain relief, sedation, and muscle spasms. It was also used to treat conditions such as cholera and tetanus. However, as other drugs became available, the use of cannabis in medicine declined and was eventually banned in many countries in the early 20th century.

In recent years, there has been growing interest in the use of cannabis for medicinal purposes, particularly for the treatment of chronic pain, nausea, and vomiting associated with chemotherapy, and spasticity in multiple sclerosis. Cannabis-based medications, such as Sativex and Epidiolex, have been approved for use in some countries, although regulations and availability vary widely.

Legal and Ethical Challenges

The legal and ethical challenges associated with the use of medicinal cannabis are complex and multifaceted. Although cannabis is legal for medicinal purposes in some countries, it remains illegal at the federal level in many others, creating a patchwork of laws and regulations that can be difficult to navigate. In addition, the stigma surrounding cannabis use can make it difficult for patients to access the drug, and the lack of standardized dosing and administration can make it challenging to conduct rigorous clinical trials.

There are also ethical considerations to consider when using medicinal cannabis. Some people may be uncomfortable with the idea of using a drug that has been stigmatized and criminalized for so long, while others may be concerned about the environmental and social impacts of the cannabis industry. It is important to have open and honest conversations with healthcare providers and loved ones about the benefits and risks of using medicinal cannabis, as well as any ethical concerns that may arise.

Conclusion

The history of medicinal cannabis is long and complex, with references to its use dating back thousands of years. Although the use of cannabis in medicine has declined and has faced legal and ethical challenges, there is growing interest in its potential therapeutic benefits, particularly for chronic pain and other conditions for which traditional treatments may be ineffective or carry significant risks. As the legal and regulatory landscape continues to evolve, it is important to work with qualified healthcare providers to determine whether medicinal cannabis is a safe and effective treatment option for individual patients.

References:

Russo EB. History of cannabis and its preparations in saga, science, and sobriquet. Chem Biodivers. 2007;4(8):1614-1648.

Hill KP. Medical marijuana for treatment of chronic pain and other medical and psychiatric problems: a clinical review. JAMA. 2015 Jun 23;313(24):2474-83.

Mücke M, Phillips T, Radbruch L, Petzke F, Häuser W. Cannabis-based medicines for chronic neuropathic pain in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018 Mar 7;3(3):CD012182.

Pisanti S, Malfitano AM, Ciaglia E, et al. Cannabidi

Zhang, Z., & Zhang, H. (2019). The history and culture of Cannabis in China. Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research, 4(4), 298-304.

Yang, Z., & Zhang, J. (2008). The origin of the Chinese name for Cannabis and its implications. Journal of Ethnopharmacology

Chopra, R. N., Chopra, I. C., & Handa, K. L. (1958). Chopra's indigenous drugs of India. U. N. Dhar & Sons.

Singh, N., Sharma, B., Singh, H., & Sharma, V. (2017). Ethnobotanical and historical uses of cannabis in India. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 197, 133-141.

Mustafa, S. A., & Ali, S. F. (2018). Cannabis sativa: The unconventional “weed” of choice for traditional medicine in the Middle East. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 218, 240-256.

Hillig, K. W., & Mahlberg, P. G. (2004). A chemotaxonomic analysis of cannabinoid variation in Cannabis (Cannabaceae). American Journal of Botany, 91(6), 966-975.

Russo, E. B. (2007). History of cannabis and its preparations in saga, science, and sobriquet. Chemistry & Biodiversity, 4(8), 1614-1648.

Mercuri, A. M., Accorsi, C. A., & Sadori, L. (2018). Plants and ancient people: The relationship between people and plants as documented by archaeobotanical studies. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany, 27(2), 211-217.

Booth, M. (2003). Cannabis: A history. Picador.

Russo, E. B. (2013). The pharmacological history of cannabis. Handbook of cannabis. Oxford University Press, 23-43.

Mustafa, S. A., & Ali, S. F. (2018). Cannabis sativa: The unconventional “weed” of choice for traditional medicine in the Middle East. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 218, 240-256.

Hillig, K. W., & Mahlberg, P. G. (2004). A chemotaxonomic analysis of cannabinoid variation in Cannabis (Cannabaceae). American Journal of Botany, 91(6), 966-975.

Mechoulam, R., Parker, L. A., & Gallily, R. (2002). Cannabidiol: an overview of some pharmacological aspects. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 42(11 Suppl), 11S-19S.

Abel, E. L. (1980). Cannabis in the ancient Greek and Roman world. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 7(1), 7-21.

Abel, E. L. (1980). Marihuana: The first twelve thousand years. Springer.

Bouquet, R. J. (1950). Cannabis. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime.

EMCDDA (2019). European Drug Report 2019: Trends and Developments. European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction.

Grotenhermen, F., & Müller-Vahl, K. (2012). Medicinal uses of marijuana and cannabinoids. Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences, 31(5), 400-418.

Medical Disclaimer

Nadarra Health Pty Ltd, a medicinal cannabis company, is committed to providing high-quality medicinal cannabis products to patients in need. However, it is important to note that the use of medicinal cannabis should be done under the guidance of a qualified medical professional.

Our medicinal cannabis products are not intended to diagnose, treat, cure or prevent any disease or medicinal condition. They are not a substitute for professional medicinal advice, diagnosis or treatment. The information provided on our website and through our customer support team is for informational purposes only and should not be considered medicinal advice.

It is important to discuss the use of medicinal cannabis with a qualified medicinal professional before starting treatment. Medicinal cannabis can interact with other medications, and its use may not be appropriate for everyone. Patients should also be aware of the potential risks and side effects associated with the use of medicinal cannabis.

Nadarra Health is committed to providing accurate and up-to-date information about medicinal cannabis and its use. However, we cannot be held responsible for any errors or omissions in the information provided. Patients should always consult with their healthcare provider before using any medicinal cannabis products.

By using our medicinal cannabis products, patients acknowledge that they have read, understood and agreed to the terms of this medical disclaimer.

The Science of Medicinal Cannabis: How It Works in the Body and Brain

In recent years the scientific community has begun to understand how cannabis works in the body and brain. The cannabis plant contains a number of compounds, including cannabinoids and terpenes, that have been found to have potential therapeutic benefits. In this paper, we will explore the science of medicinal cannabis, including how it interacts with the body's endocannabinoid system, the potential benefits and risks, and the challenges of conducting research in this field.

The science of medicinal cannabis

The Endocannabinoid System

The endocannabinoid system (ECS) is a complex network of receptors, enzymes, and endocannabinoids that are involved in regulating a wide range of physiological processes, including appetite, pain sensation, mood, and immune function. The two main types of cannabinoid receptors are CB1 and CB2, which are found throughout the body and brain. Endocannabinoids are naturally occurring compounds that bind to these receptors, and they play a key role in maintaining homeostasis, or balance, within the body.

Cannabinoids in Medicinal Cannabis

The cannabis plant contains over 100 different cannabinoids, although the two most well-known are tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD). THC is the primary psychoactive component of cannabis, and it is responsible for the "high" that is associated with recreational use of the drug. However, THC also has potential therapeutic benefits, including pain relief, nausea reduction, and appetite stimulation.

CBD, on the other hand, is non-psychoactive and has been found to have anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anticonvulsant properties. It may also have potential benefits for anxiety, depression, and other mental health conditions. Other cannabinoids that are being studied for their potential therapeutic benefits include cannabigerol (CBG), cannabichromene (CBC), and cannabinol (CBN).

Potential Benefits of Medicinal Cannabis

Medicinal cannabis has been found to have potential benefits for a wide range of conditions, including:

Chronic pain: THC and other cannabinoids have been found to have pain-relieving properties, particularly for neuropathic pain and inflammatory pain.

Multiple sclerosis: Sativex, a cannabis-based medication that contains both THC and CBD, has been found to reduce spasticity and improve mobility in people with multiple sclerosis.

Epilepsy: CBD has been found to reduce the frequency and severity of seizures in some people with epilepsy, particularly those with rare and severe forms of the condition.

Nausea and vomiting: THC has been found to reduce nausea and vomiting associated with chemotherapy and other medical treatments.

Anxiety and depression: CBD has been found to have potential benefits for anxiety and depression, although more research is needed to determine its effectiveness.

Potential Risks and Side Effects of Medicinal Cannabis

While medicinal cannabis has potential benefits, it is also important to consider the potential risks and side effects associated with its use. These can include:

Psychotropic effects: THC can cause feelings of euphoria and altered perception, which may be undesirable for some patients.

Cognitive impairment: THC can also impair cognitive function, which may affect driving and other activities that require concentration.

Addiction: While the risk of addiction to cannabis is lower than that of opioids, it is still possible to develop a dependence on the drug.

Respiratory problems: Smoking cannabis can cause respiratory problems such as coughing, wheezing, and lung infections.

Interaction with other medications: Cannabis can interact with other medications, including opioids and benzodiazepines, which can increase the risk of adverse effects.

Challenges of Conducting Research on Medicinal Cannabis

One of the biggest challenges in studying medicinal cannabis is the legal and regulatory landscape. Cannabis is still illegal at the federal level in many countries, which can make it difficult for researchers to obtain funding and access to the drug for clinical trials. In addition, the variability in the composition and potency of cannabis products can make it challenging to conduct rigorous, controlled studies that produce meaningful results.

Another challenge is the lack of standardization in dosing and administration of cannabis products. Different strains of cannabis contain varying levels of cannabinoids and terpenes, and the same strain can have different effects in different people. This variability makes it difficult to establish standard dosing guidelines and to compare the results of different studies.

Conclusion

The science of medicinal cannabis is still emerging, but there is growing evidence for its potential benefits in treating a wide range of conditions. The cannabinoids and other compounds found in cannabis interact with the body's endocannabinoid system to produce a range of effects, including pain relief, anti-inflammatory properties, and mood stabilization. However, it is also important to consider the potential risks and side effects associated with cannabis use, as well as the challenges of conducting research in this field. As with any medical treatment, it is important to work with a qualified healthcare provider to determine if medicinal cannabis is a safe and effective option for your specific condition.

References:

Devinsky O, Cilio MR, Cross H, et al. Cannabidiol: pharmacology and potential therapeutic role in epilepsy and other neuropsychiatric disorders. Epilepsia. 2014;55(6):791-802.

Hill KP. Medical marijuana for treatment of chronic pain and other medical and psychiatric problems: a clinical review. JAMA. 2015 Jun 23;313(24):2474-83.

Pisanti S, Malfitano AM, Ciaglia E, et al. Cannabidiol: state of the art and new challenges for therapeutic applications. Pharmacol Ther. 2017;175:133-150.

Russo EB. Cannabinoids in the management of difficult to treat pain. Ther Clin Risk Manag. 2008;4(1):245-259.

Whiting PF, Wolff RF, Deshpande S, et al. Cannabinoids for medical use: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA. 2015;313(24):2456-2473.

Medical Disclaimer

Nadarra Health Pty Ltd, a medicinal cannabis company, is committed to providing high-quality medicinal cannabis products to patients in need. However, it is important to note that the use of medicinal cannabis should be done under the guidance of a qualified medical professional.

Our medicinal cannabis products are not intended to diagnose, treat, cure or prevent any disease or medical condition. They are not a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis or treatment. The information provided on our website and through our customer support team is for informational purposes only and should not be considered medical advice.

It is important to discuss the use of medicinal cannabis with a qualified medical professional before starting treatment. Medicinal cannabis can interact with other medications, and its use may not be appropriate for everyone. Patients should also be aware of the potential risks and side effects associated with the use of medicinal cannabis.

Nadarra Health is committed to providing accurate and up-to-date information about medicinal cannabis and its use. However, we cannot be held responsible for any errors or omissions in the information provided. Patients should always consult with their healthcare provider before using any medicinal cannabis products.

By using our medicinal cannabis products, patients acknowledge that they have read, understood and agreed to the terms of this medical disclaimer.